Словарь-компаньон для тех, кто изучает экономику [Валентина Анатольевна Кононова] (pdf) читать постранично, страница - 32

стоимости капитала)
Total revenue is the amount of money received by firms when they sell a
good (or service); it is equal to the price (P) of the good times the quantity
(Q) of the good sold. Therefore total revenue = P × Q. OR: total revenue
is the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed
as the price of the good times the quantity sold.

TRADABLE PERMITS – природоохранные квоты с правом переуступки
Tradable permits are permits that can be issued to firms by a government
or an international body, and that can be traded (bought and sold) in
a market, the objective being to limit the total amount of pollutants emitted
by the firms. If a firm can produce its product by emitting a lower level
of pollutants than the level set by its permits, it can sell its extra permits in
the market. If a firm needs to emit more pollutants than the level set by its
permits, it can buy more permits in the market. Tradable permits are part
of cap-and-trade schemes.

TRADE BALANCE – внешнеторговый баланс; торговый баланс
Trade balance is the value of a nation’s exports minus the value of its
imports; also called net exports.

TRADE CREATION – налаживание торговых связей
Trade creation is the replacement of higher cost products (imported or
domestically produced) by lower cost imports that results when a trading
bloc is formed and trade barriers are removed. (To be contrasted with
trade diversion.)

TRADE DEFICIT – превышение импорта над экспортом; внешнеторговый дефицит; отрицательное сальдо торгового баланса
Trade deficit is an excess of imports over exports. If net exports are negative, exports are less than imports, indicating that the country sells fewer
goods and services abroad than it buys from other countries. In this case,
the country is said to run a trade deficit.

TRADE DIVERSION – переориентация торговли
Trade diversion is the replacement of lower cost products (imported or
domestically produced) by higher cost imports that results when a trading
bloc is formed and trade barriers are removed. (To be contrasted with
trade creation.)

TRADE LIBERALISATION – либерализация торговли
Trade liberalisation is the policy of liberalising (freeing up) international trade
by eliminating trade protection and barriers to trade (i.e. tariffs, quotas, etc.)

TRADE POLICY – торговая политика; товарная политика
A trade policy is a government policy that directly influences the quantity
of goods and services that a country imports or exports. Trade policy takes
various forms, usually with the purpose of supporting a particular domestic industry. One common trade policy is a tariff, a tax on imported goods.
Another is an import quota, a limit on the quantity of a good produced
abroad that can be sold domestically. Trade policies are common throughout the world, although sometimes they are disguised.

TRADE PROTECTION – торговый протекционизм
Trade protection is government intervention in international trade
through the imposition of trade restrictions (or barriers) to prevent the free
entry of imports into a country and protect the domestic economy from
foreign competition.

TRADE SURPLUS – торговый профицит; положительное сальдо
торгового баланса
Trade surplus is an excess of exports over imports. If net exports are positive, exports are greater than imports, indicating that the country sells
more goods and services abroad than it buys from other countries. In this
case, the country is said to run a trade surplus.

TRADING BLOC – торговый блок, торгово-экономический союз
Trading bloc refers to a group of countries that have agreed to reduce
tariff and other barriers to trade for the purpose of encouraging the development of free or freer trade and cooperation between them.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS – трагедия ресурсов общего пользования; «трагедия общин» (термин, популяризированный Г. Хардином в 1968 году в статье для журнала Science)
Tragedy of the Commons is a parable that illustrates why common resources are used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as
a whole.
Common resources, like public goods, are not excludable: They are available free of charge to anyone who wants to use them. Common resources
are, however, rival in consumption: One person’s use of the common resource reduces other people’s ability to use it. Thus, common resources
give rise to a new problem. Once the good is provided, policymakers need
to be concerned about how much it is used. This problem is best understood from the classic parable called the Tragedy of the Commons.

TRANSACTION COSTS – затраты по сделкам, трансакционные
издержки
Transaction costs are the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing to and following through on a bargain.

Sometimes the interested parties fail to solve an externality problem because of transaction costs, the costs that parties incur in the process of
agreeing to and following through on a bargain. For example Dick and
Jane speak different languages so that, to reach an agreement, they need to
hire a translator. If the benefit of solving the barking problem is less than
the cost of the translator, Dick and Jane might choose to leave the problem
unsolved. In more realistic examples, the transaction costs are the expenses not of translators but of the lawyers required to draft and enforce
contracts.

TRANSFER PAYMENTS – трансфертные платежи
Transfer payments are payments made by the government to individuals
specifically for the purpose of redistributing income, thus transferring income from those who work and pay taxes towards those who cannot work
and need assistance. Groups receiving transfer payments may include
older people, sick people, very poor people, children of poor families,
unemployed people and others; in their entirety they are referred to as
‘vulnerable groups’.

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE – страхование по безработице
Unemployment insurance is a government program that partially protects workers’ incomes when they become unemployed. The unemployed
who quit their jobs, were fired for cause, or just entered the labor force are
not eligible. Benefits are paid only to the unemployed who were laid off
because their previous employers no longer needed their skills.

UNEMPLOYMENT RATE – уровень безработицы; процент безработных
Unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.

UNION – профсоюз
Union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages
and working conditions.

A union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages
and working conditions. Unions often raise wages above the level that
would prevail without a union, perhaps because they can threaten to withhold labor from the firm by calling a strike. Studies suggest that union
workers earn about 10 to 20 percent more than similar nonunion workers.

UTILITARIANISM – утилитаризм; прагматизм
Utilitarianism is the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies to maximize the total utility of everyone in
society.
A prominent school of thought in political philosophy is utilitarianism.
The founders of utilitarianism are the English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). To a large extent,
the goal of utilitarians is to apply the logic of individual decision making
to questions concerning morality and public policy.

UTILITY – практическая ценность; полезность; польза
Utility is a measure of happiness or satisfaction.
The starting point of utilitarianism is the notion of utility – the level of
happiness or satisfaction that a person receives from his or her circumstances. Utility is a measure of well-being and, according to utilitarians,
is the ultimate objective of all public and private actions. The proper goal
of the